1.5 The Location of Capitalism

The locality of a society is a question that is well worth our consideration as it entails an understanding of the development of human society and its relation to geography. This is a comprehensive topic, and one can add a long list of questions and answers to the topic of geography, from the formation of our solar system, to the evolution of plants and the animal world as well, approximately when the human species began to take shape. The effect of geographical conditions on the initial societal form of the human community – tribes– the longue durée phase is more significant. It may be more correct to view the inability of the tribal society to advance to another phase as due to unsuitability of the geographical conditions and not to insufficient internal evolution. If not, a few million years of clan existence might have been enough for internal evolution. Geographers agree that in general the geographical environment at the end of the last glacial period was similar to that of the present. At the end of the last glacial period, after different phases in Asia, Europe, and Africa, the human species began a new period with the onset of Homo sapiens. Thus, it is clear that there is a close correlation and dialectical relationship between humans and geography. For example, if the atmosphere, plants and animals, the soil, and freshwater resources are exhausted, the human species will not survive. It is as if all this is the result of a grand intelligence; even a temporary deterioration of such resources may bring the end of human life. Therefore, the relationship between humans and geography must always be taken into consideration. In its absence, there can be no social science. Until recently, most philosophical, scientific, and religious work has treated this relationship as beside the point. Oddly enough, mythology-considered to be farther removed from reality-was more interested in topics dealing with the relationship between geography and humans. Science’s lack of interest in this issue must be the result of the separation of analytic intelligence from emotional intelligence.

Various anthropological and archaeological studies suggest that after {0,000 BCE three cultural groups became more prominent. The first group, the Semitic peoples. arrived from the African continent in the last wave of immigration. They mainly spread to North Africa and Arabia, and partly to lite foothills of the Taurus-Zagros mountain system. A branch of the second group broke away from the Siberian foothills and reached the American continent over the Bering Strait, while the main branch spread to the western shores and islands of the Pacific Ocean or to the inner lands of Central Asia; a sub-branch (the Finno- Ugric branch) spread to Eastern and Northern Europe. They are today referred to as Asians and Native Americans, and the Chinese, Japanese, and Turks constitute the greater number within this group. The more prosperous and extensive area in between these two groups was where the Indo-European group was located. This is the main group that started the civilization and, before that, the Neolithic Agricultural Era. The other two groups made a delayed transition to the Neolithic and to civilization in the north and the south. Such a transition is difficult to imagine without the transfer of accumulations from the Indo- European group.

Most leading anthropologists, archaeologists, geologists, and biologists agree that the Tauros-Zagros foothills offer the most suitable conditions for the transition to the Neolithic and the Civilization Eras. Amongst the decisive factors were the available species of animals and vegetation, abundance of rain and rivers, climate, and geology. It also had the ideal location as it was the main area of transition between Africa, Asia and Europe, and the ideal place for a stopover. The leading core of the Indo-European group were called Aryan by those who first started the civilization. They played a leading role in establishing both the Neolithic-agricultural and the city-state-civilization eras and in spreading them around the world.

In the preceding volume on civilization, I have discussed in detail how different cultural groups have spread around and influenced the world. I will not repeat myself as our concern here is to determine the role of this aspect of geography in societal development, and why capitalist economy finally attained its victory in the then relatively unknown Netherlands and in English at the time.

Present day social scientists see the role of geography mainly in terms of geopolitics or geostrategy, thus not taking into consideration the essential aspect of geography. However. establishing the relationship between historical sociality and geography (in its unrestricted sense) is more fundamental and should have higher priority than the role of geopolitics or geostrategy –it is more meaningful to deal with the roots than the offshoots. Generally speaking, to attain a meaningful anthropology and knowledge of history, it is essential that we examine the different eras and civilizations with regard to their geography. We cannot reconstruct history without location. Indeed, the dual antagonism of space-time, being the main dimensions of the universe, is always on our mind. Their effect on each other, even their ability to transform and unite, is a crucial part of the sciences.

I want to return to our story of the strong and crafty man. 23 But let first say that in order to practice meaningful science, we need to establish a relationship between narrative, knowledge, and science. In my opinion, a science without a story cannot be deemed meaningful. And, I believe, that the historical story of the strong and crafty man is a concept that should be a cornerstone of the social sciences. We need this concept for a more accurate interpretation of various social relations. In fact, in areas where there are numerous events and relations, making use of narratives render the most valuable contributions to science. Determining such numerous amounts of events and relationships is not possible under the religionism called positivism. But science may be developed far better through the use of religion, morals, and other forms of art-all are narratives of some sort.

To return to the strong and crafty man: Until he makes the transition to the position of dominant man and bases himself in the centers of super power, he has pursued a long road with many mazes and many conspiracies. Thus, it is important that we look for the locations where these men have their power centers and the locations where they hide or shelter should the need arise. We will understand them better if we conceive of these men as a strategic force that continuously designs social tactics-that is, economic, political, and military tactics.

The strong and crafty man entered the house economy of the woman like a burglar. Not content with plundering, he subjected her to constant rape in order to turn the sacred family home into a robber’s nest, the den of the forty thieves. He has never moved past the mentality of a self-conscious traitor. His initial accumulation of capital took place in two locations: firstly, in order to get control of the house economy, he occupied the home; secondly, in reaction to the state’s official and legitimized monopoly, he created a private monopoly similar to the one of the forty thieves. Because he was scared of society and of the state’s surveillance, he quite early on started to move between these locations with a masked or false face. He expertly hid in the cracks and crannies of society’s fabric where he lay in ambush. When the time was right, he pounced on his prey like a lion; at other times, he would camouflage himself chameleon-like by blending in with the environment he found himself in and caught his prey with the craftiness of a fox. He became the expert on trade at marginal points-towns and rural areas out of the easy reach of civilization were closely under his watch. He knew how to rob both the urban and the rural by striking a balance between them. He was astute enough to make smaller gains from short haul trade, the biggest gains from long haul. The fundamental rule of his profession was to know where re the most profit was to be made and to steer towards those places. But viewing his action as the strategic piracy of these roads is quite instructive! This is probably what is meant by the saying “capital has no homeland.”

If city, market, and trade are the preconditions for the existence of capitalism, why did it not declare its victory in these locations much earlier? instead of rising to success in Amsterdam, it could just as well have happened in the city of Uruk. At this point, I have to point out that capitalism as a system has no direct relationship with the advanced science and technology. In my opinion, the reason why it couldn’t succeed may have something to do with the religious, political, and military power monopolies not allowing it any space in which it could establish its own hegemony. These centers of power, previously tested and who had gained legitimacy, might have viewed a fourth pillar of power as excessive and, due to its structure, a threat to their own existence.

At times, capital did try to hijack the system by establishing itself as the fourth monopoly, but it was always defeated-this may well be one of the reasons for the ruins of so many cities that were found in unexpected locations. The reason for wealthy merchant cities’ sudden disappearance from history (both in antiquity and in medieval times) may be related to political and military resistance of the fourth monopoly, primitive capitalism. A case in point is that of the city of Harappa (at its peak around 2,500 BCE). Part of the advanced Indus civilization with its sophisticated architecture, trade network, and writing system. this large and wealthy city was erased from the map quite early on, around 1,900 BCE. While the reason for the demise of Harappa is not clear, it could well have been due to Harappan competition and rebellion against the monopoly of the priest-politician-soldier triumvirate. It is highly probable that while Harappa may have been a trade colony of a Sumerian based civilization, it might later have desired independence and hence rebelled. Had the rebellion succeeded, since Harappa did not possess the same conditions as its competitors, it might have attempted establishing a system like that of Amsterdam (the initial capitalist experiment).

An even more striking example is the story of Carthage. This city, built by Phoenicians around the eighth century BCE at the far end of Mediterranean, was based mainly on trade. Because of its location both the West Mediterranean and North Africa served as its hinterland. While Carthage grew into the richest Mediterranean city of its time and clearly had an advanced society, due to the circumstances at the time it did not establish an empire. This was its weakness. And it prevented others from doing so (probably the reason behind its conflict with Rome). Due to its location, it was easier for Rome to progress beyond city-state by conquering other territories in the Italian peninsula and thus have the ability to establish a republic or an empire.24

The only way for Carthage to escape eventual ruin would have been to do what Amsterdam did when it was under threat by the empires of Spain and France, namely reinforcing the city’s advanced trade monopoly by establishing a capitalistic state device coupled with geographical expansion (in North Africa or, as the Moroccan Umayyad dynasty did, in Spain). It had no other option if it wanted to escape the Roman Republic. But then, Rome had no option but to defeat Carthage: if it did not, a nearby competing empire that could have meant the end of Roman superiority. Quite reminiscent of the relationship between Cuba and the USA!

A similar case was the famous East Syrian city of Palmyra that fell victim to Rome in the 3rd century, during the first crisis of the Roman Empire’s decline. During my stay in Syria, I often visited the ruins of Palmyra and was truly captivated by this city in the heart of the Syrian Desert with its single spring surrounded by a forest of palm trees. It is indeed a fascinating city with its castle, high walls, agora, famous Temple of liel, the senate building, the Valley of the Tombs, long markets, and numerous palaces. The stone carvings are extraordinary. A city that leaves one in deep reverence and horror.

Palmyra acquired its importance due to its central location on the lint-West and North-South trade networks; this city-state also functioned as it buffer between the Roman and Iranian Sassanid Empires. For many centuries, it grew and grew due to its trade monopolies. The enormous wealth it acquired probably outdid that of Amsterdam in its golden age and that of present-day New York As with Carthage, the Roman Empire grew uncomfortable with this city-state and in 44 BCE made its first attempt to occupy it. From then until 272 BCE, Palmyra was under varying forms of Roman rule and became the most important caravan city of the Roman Empire. During its final period, the city grew dissatisfied with being a kingdom dependent on Rome and desired to transform itself into an empire equal to Rome. Could Palmyra achieve what Carthage could not?

For Rome, this possibility held a dangerous threat. The Roman emperor Aurelius seized the city and left it to Zenobia with the status of province of Rome. On his return to Rome, the news reached him that the city had rebelled once again and desired its independence. In anger, he turned back in Palmyra and this time he left behind only ruins, taking Zenobia to Rome in chains after she was caught in the act of running off to the Sassanids.25 So, the only way out for Palmyra would have been to do what Amsterdam or London did. It put up resistance. But it was not successful.

It may also be instructive to add classical Athens to this list of victims. This city, the result of sea trade, was the star of the civilization between 500 BCE and 350 BCE, It is possible to presume that it was a city with the most developed primitive capitalism. Big and private (not state) trade monopolies did business from thousands of kilometers away. All the wealth flooded to Athens. The trade networks from the Eastern Mediterranean to Marseilles, from North Africa to Macedonia and from all of Anatolia to the Black Sea, flooded Athens with surplus product and money. It had already created philosophy and brought craftsmanship to the verge of establishing factories. The art of ship building was at its peak and money was well in circulation. It had colonies everywhere. The rich came to Athens from all over the world. It can be seen as the first cosmopolitan city. In my personal view. Its one and only shortcoming –that it could not attain unity within the Peninsula– was the only obstacle preventing a capitalist victory. There was no shortage of labor either. The slaves sold at the markets were indeed very cheap. The level it attained forced Athens to either surpass the old structures of slavery and become a nation-state within the boundaries of the Peninsula and reach the position Netherlands had attained, or to be defeated by its rivals and be left in an insignificant state. The ground forces of the Spartan Kingdom and the Persian Empire attacked this city for more than a century. Athens, however, strove to stand strong based on its democracy. The claws of the Macedonian Kings, Phillip II and his son, Alexander, resulted in a strategic defeat for Athens. Eventually, in the face of the Roman and Anatolian Hellenistic kingdoms, Athens had no chance for making the necessary advance.

I could also give examples from the medieval period-from the Islamic civilization and the Indian peninsula. But the most striking examples of this period are the famous capitalist cities of the Italian peninsula. Venice, Genoa, and Florence lost their chance of being an Amsterdam or London when Spanish, French and Austrian empires desired old style empires and, thus, broke their domination over other towns and in the peninsula. The Italian cities established everything necessary for the construction of modern capitalism.

They had the capital accumulation, banks, firms, credit system, and deposit slips as finance tools; they had short and long-haul trade; they had various types of craftsmen and artisans and could manufacture all the industrial items of the time; they had at their disposal republican and imperial practices, religion, and various denominations. In fact, the Italian Peninsula in the period 1300-1600 BCE was the laboratory for, and prototype of, the Europe that would soon arise. It was also the homeland of the Renaissance-without any doubt partly as a result of its relationship with and its historical inheritance from the East. The accumulations of the East were channeled to the Peninsula via the city trade monopolists of mainly Venice, Florence and Genoa, and a few others with big appetites. More importantly, for the first time in history a massive hinterland for the accumulation of capital was formed due to the urban movements that developed throughout Europe under the lead of the ltalian cities –an Italian merchant could be seen in every European city. While the Catholic Church had already laid the foundation for the civilization, the Renaissance provided the definitive and unambiguous leadership.

The only reason why Italy did not proceed to develop into an England or mother Netherlands was its geography. Paradoxically, the same geography that made Italy the leader in city capitalism also brought city capitalism to the threshold of victory within the borders of the Peninsula but could not provide the final impetus for the final victory. The reason is quite simple: for Italy to have earlier taken the place of England would have required that it demolish Spain, France, and Austria-a repeat of Rome’s advancement towards empire that would have enabled Italy to become the second world empire. after Rome, on a capitalistic socio-economic base. It is clear why Spain, France, and Austria besieged the Italian cities: inevitably these cities, strengthened by a new socio-economic unity, would first have expanded inevitably into Europe then around the world; this would have meant the end of their own empires. The Italian cities had all the prerequisites – foremost of which was capital– to do just that. Their failure to accomplish this victory was a great misfortune for them and nationally it meant a setback for Italy of three hundred years or more.

in my opinion, the fact that they just missed becoming a second home is due to geographic reasons. The first Rome also narrowly escaped Hannibal’s assault after the Carthaginians’ long march from the north. Now, the attackers from the north had the resources of forty Hannibals and the cities had no chance. Their only chance of success would have been through a religion of swords, the method used by Arabic Islam in its successful expansion into the entire Middle East. If, instead of Christianity, Islam was the power in Rome, or if Catholic Christendom expanded its religion and politics through the power of the sword, we would have had a different world. One cannot but speculate: Had there been no Christianity, what kind of fate would Rome have and what would it have resulted in? More interestingly, what if Mehmed II had heeded the calls by the Pope to become a sworded Christian? I know history is not an area of speculation, but it is no secret that historical developments carry with them several alternatives.

What the italian cities did not achieve. Amsterdam and London achieved towards the end of the sixteenth century. Considerable research has been done to establish the reasons why capitalism had its final victory specifically in these areas and I will not dwell on it. I briefly list the reasons here:

1. These cities are located at the far North-Western end of Europe; because of this location, the ancient civilizations arrived at the Atlantic Ocean at a late and weakened stage.
2. The three major powers of Europe; France, Austria, and the Spanish Kingdoms, were fighting one another for control over Europe.
3. The big powers did not perceive them to be as dangerous as the Italian cities, hence they were not attacked with concentrated, sufficient force.
4. Their countries lead the expansion of the Reformation in Northern Europe.
5. Their location on the shores of the Atlantic Ocean gave them an advantage in the short and long-haul trade.
6. They had transferred all the material and immaterial culture of the Italian cities.
7. Feudalism was weak in these areas, both materially and immaterially.
8. A strong feudalism that could prevent the capitalistic development of transport, agriculture, and industry never existed in these regions. On the other hand, civilization probably developed here for the first time with capitalistic characteristics.

We could expand the list, but the reasons are all closely related to the geographic location of these cities. The geostrategic and geopolitical conditions of these cities presented the most favorable situation; this, in combination with the social conditions in these locations, made victory possible.

One of the important findings of anthropology is that, before the last glacial period, Africa played the leading role in humanity’s development. However, because of climatic and geomorphological changes, this role shifted to the beautiful skirts of the Zagros-Taurus region where the Neolithic Revolution, arguably the biggest revolution in history, took place. These mountain skirts produced everything that was needed in terms of material and immaterial culture for the development of civilization. Not ly was rich, fertile soil brought down from the mountain skirts to the Gulf Delta by the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, the people from the mountain regions used their budding shipbuilding and navigational skills to transport themselves and all their cultural values on long, hazardous journeys down these rivers; with the onset of their first civilizational adventure, the cities of Eridu and Uruk had already synthesized these values. There, along the banks of the sacred rivers down to the Gulf where they poured into the sea, the culture expanded and flourished.

Uruk was not just another human culture-it was the start of a new miracle. The voice of Uruk’s goddess, Inanna, is the main source of all legends. poems, and songs. Hers is the voice of a magnificent culture; the beautiful. clear voice of the woman not yet besmirched by the ugly voice of the scheming male. The flowering culture of Uruk scattered its seeds throughout its own geography: cities sprouted one after another. An urban zone had been formed. The strong and crafty man immediately noticed the source of real accumulation in the increasing trade possibilities of the cities. A cultural flow, directly opposite to that which came before, thus began. So started a period in which the Neolithic landscape became engulfed by urbanization. The drowning out of Inanna’s voice by the ever-louder voice of the strong and crafty man reflected the fact that the woman was being rendered ineffective.26 i will not delve into the geographical adventures of the civilization that rests on power. Let me just say that it left behind thousands of kilometers of shoreline and rugged terrain all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, leaving behind a new culture on the shores of Amsterdam and London.

Thus, the material and immaterial culture obtained throughout time and all geographical locations has shaped the modern capitalist economy and nation under leadership of the two cities. But keep in mind that the Neolithic culture reached this region at a very late stage.27 This corresponds with a commonly observed relationship between geography and culture: molding a new culture in an area where the old culture is deeply rooted is very difficult. The old culture will not easily accept the new one-it is only natural that it will defend itself. But when the seeds of a new culture are sown in a region where the old one has not established itself deeply yet, the region will turn green with the shoots of the new cultural seeds: it is highly probable that the new culture will become deep-rooted and permanent. 28

That is why when the seeds of capitalist economy were sown in Northern Europe, a region relatively untouched by the ancient civilization, they took root so well in the two far-off nascently forming countries of England and the Netherlands. It was the last inheritance of the Uruk culture that was carried from one shore to another. The carriers of cultural inheritance have always been the merchants: as is often said, the merchants sense the most profitable places.

So, their remote locations in a marginal region never targeted by power centers was in fact an advantage that brought good opportunities to these countries. They reinforced their leading positions by appropriating all findings by the Italian cities about capitalism and the routes discovered by the Spanish-Portuguese Armada. It was an act of assimilation: they made these gains their own. The wars between the big powers of Europe prevented possible external dangers. Internally, the productivity of the new economy (due to cheap labor and raw materials) was sufficient to render its birth, towards the end of the sixteenth century, in this geographical location successful and permanent.

The two powers, which only had some differences of form, seized the chance to represent the new economy around the world with this new alliance of theirs. The novelty of the economy led to the renewal of the state and to its evolving into a productive, successful type of statehood. Economic superiority contributed to their military and political superiority.

Now, for the first time, merchant monopolies attained semi-official power by establishing partnerships (the West and East Indian Companies) with state monopolies. Now, for the first time, the disgraceful civilizational extortionists who hid themselves on the far edges and dark corners of society became masters whose legitimacy was no longer questioned. The ancient attributes of the aristocracy were bestowed on them by kings and queens. As the lion of Uruk no longer had the strength to stop Gilgamesh, there was no strength to stop his last heirs-the predators of London and Amsterdam. If they had any strength left, just as Gilgamesh had choked the lion, it would not have been so difficult for them to do the same.

The first and most powerful legend is that of the goddess Inanna’s struggle against Enki. The guardian of Eridu (the first despotic and crafty male god or deified dominant man), in order to retrieve the 99 Mes created by the woman. Indeed, the queens of England and the Netherlands, may be considered to be her heirs, have become symbolic figures reflecting all the vileness of the crafty and despotic male. This, indeed, sums up the whole adventure of the civilization.

Notes

23. The concept of the crafty man is a reference to Enki, the “the crafty God” in Sumerian mythology. Samuel Noah Cramer, Myths of Enki, The Crafty God (New York Oxford University Press, 1989).

24. Indeed, through treaties enforced by her navy, Carthage long succeeded in preventing the young Roman Republic from trading in the West Mediterranean and establishing an empire that would threaten her hold over her own dominions. But at the end of the first Punic War (264 to 241 BCE), Rome incorporated Sicily into its republic and became the dominant naval power of the Mediterranean.

25. The female presence in Rome has always enchanted me. but i think i discovered its secret when I came to understand the story of Zenobia. Rome was not just the city where all roads led to-all talented and powerful kings and queens were led to Rome as well. Interestingly enough-or rather, half-comical and half tragically –I also ended up in a latter– day Rome. May this be a result of lessons the present hegemony learned from history? Had I understood Spartacus, Saint Paul, and Giordano Bruno better I would have taken more care. If only I had read Gramsci better. Ah, the socialists! [A.0.]

26. In the early periods of Sumer, Egypt, and Ancient India, divinity is expressed by the feminine prefix-the masculine qualities of the deities arise only at a later stage. All known great goddesses, such as Ishtar, Inanna, Isis, Demeter, and Kybele, come form this age. [A.O.] See also Ocalan’s Prison Writings I: The Roots of Civilization, particularly Section 2, Chapter 1.

27. “The farming way of life originated in the Near East some 11,000 years ago and had reached most of the European continent 5000 years later.” Pontus Skoglund et al., “Origins and Genetic Legacy of Neolithic Farmers and Hunter-Gatherers in Europe,” Science, 336z6080 (April 2012), 466-469.

28. The only region not sufficiently occupied by the old civilizational culture to prevent a radical cultural transformation was the inner regions of the Arabian Peninsula. Isolated by the vast desert, this geographical vacuum shaped the social geography of Islam. If not for this geographical feature, there would have been no rise of Islam. [A.0.]