3.1 The Phenomenon of Nation and its Development

The division of society into primitive-communal society, state society, and democratic society is related to the formation of classes and problems associated with administration. The division in terms of nationalities is determined by developments in language, culture, law, and politics. It is more meaningful to talk about different types of nations instead of a single type of nation. This will make it possible to talk about nations that have been constructed on different bases.

It is instructive to consider a general social phenomenon when trying to render meaning to the category of nations. The paramount question for all clans and communities is one of entity: What kind of society or community am I? It is an inquiry into its own identity. Just as every person has a name and identity, it is possible-and necessary-to talk about a name and identity for all communities. If there are social phenomena based on differing natures, then it is only natural that they will have an expression of their identity. Name and identity are Important for different clan societies to have interaction. Besides, it is absurd to think that all the developments in science and society that have advanced human life and established communication could have happened without naming one’s unique features and not have an epithet. It is of course possible to be multilingual, multicultural, and to have a plurality of political and legal systems. In this huge network of relations, yet again, a name and an identity are a must. There can be a bilingual and bi-cultural nation, but this does not remove the need for designation and an identity. Multiple identities and diversities require the correct choice of methods of coexistence. Indeed, societies can neither emerge nor be governed in any other way.

The fact that each clan always had a unique totem is an indication of the ancientness of this reality. The totem, in short, is the identity of the clan. It is still possible to observe this relationship in some clans and tribes existing today.

The Sumerian society reflected the connection between designation and belief by expressing itself in its own temple identity. The temple is a fictive network of relations. With the temple, society’s ability to render meaning to itself attains an analytic level. Evaluating the relationships as a whole at the temple-that is, its identity-enables the understanding of that society to a large extent. The city temple, city god. and city goddess are indications of the kind of power and conceptions the society has. The value ascribed to the sacred places results from the value of the identity still embedded in these places. This is because it is also how the community identifies itself. This is what we call “self-consciousness.” Having an identity is to have consciousness of the self; indeed, it is the most effective consciousness of one’s self.

In monotheistic religions, the identity of society is the religion and God itself. A society without a religion and a religion without a society cannot be envisaged. The resulting relationship is so strong that religion and God can be described as society’s manifestation of the awareness of its own existence. For example, one can recognize Islamic societies primarily by the religious consciousness they have absorbed. They have other signifiers of belonging as well, such as sexual, political, tribal class, and intellectual identities, but these all carry the stamp of the overarching religious identity.

In antiquity, the city rather than the nation was the bearer of identity. For instance, identity was attached to Athens and Rome. Citizenship of Athens or Rome was a most distinguished identity-one not easily attained. This shows the strength of the city’s character and the honor in which it was held. Greek and Italian identities were not yet that significant. During the Middle Ages, the identity of being a people started to develop. The various religions played an important role in this development. For example, Islam brought awareness of being Arabic and of Arabic supremacy. Judaism was equated with Jewishness. Christianity was an extremely important identity of the Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks as a people, who became Christians very early on. The religious and ethnic identities mutually fostered one another.

One of the most important functions of monotheistic religions is that of surpassing the tribal identity. Although it may not be as strong as a national identity or consciousness, the awareness of being a people has also played an important role in the Middle East and during the Middle Ages. The monotheistic religions were influential in the development of this sociological formation of being a people. When religion plays a part in a group identifying itself as being a people, we can talk about that religion being proto-nationalism. For the Turks, religion was a very important tool in forming an identity. If there were no Islam, the existence of Turks and Arabs as peoples would have had less significance in the Middle East; two counter-examples are that of the Jewish Khazar Turks and the Christian Arabs.

The spread of Christianity in the European Middle Ages was intertwined largely with the development of the awareness of being a people. In their previous tribal communities, just as with Arabic and Turkish tribes, the consciousness of being a people from a common background was very weak. Before modernity, Christianity was a factor that objectively raised this awareness. It did not designate these societies to be French or German, but a shared religious consciousness in all these tribes was a huge step towards the development of a people with a common identity. The second step was the political development of the formation of kingdoms. So, after development of a common religion. the formation of the tribes into a mutual kingdom is the final big step into becoming a nation. France is a typical example of this process.

The development of the market results in the increase of social relations; the birth of the nation is near. Nationhood is therefore the sum of social relations that develop around tribal consciousness, religious consciousness, common political authority, and the market. It may be more meaningful to talk about a nation-society. Becoming a nation is not the same as becoming a state. For example, even though the French kingdom was destroyed, the French nation continued to exist. It may be instructive to describe being a nation as a community that is unified by language and culture. But it is both a narrow and an inadequate definition to say that language and culture alone determine what a nation is. These of course are not the only bases for being a nation; politics, law, revolution, arts – especially literature and music – and market economy all play their role in becoming a nation. Nationhood has no direct relationship with economic and political systems, although they may be mutually influential. It is a very ambiguous matter, and thus any analysis in this regard should be done in a sensitive and balanced way.

The majority of today’s communities have become nations. Although there are marginal groups that have not become nations, the majority now are nation societies. It is almost as if there is no individual without a nation-belonging to a nation may even be considered a natural social state. But in the long history of civilization being a nation has never, before the onset of the capitalist system, acquired such importance. Or, rather, what has been done in the name of nation has prepared the ground for terrible catastrophes.

An excessive emphasis on the elements that constitute a nation has created disaster. The most important factor in the formation of nationalist ideologies is the link between nation and politics. Nationalist politics will always end in fascist rule (as will nationalism fueled by economy, religion, and literature). The capitalist monopoly has “over-nationalized” the elements contributing to nation forming, such as politics, economy, religion, law, arts, sports, diplomacy, and patriotism in order to attain a systemic unity in the name of resolving the crises. Thus, every nation thinks that it will be the strongest of all by not leaving a single social entity out of the power relations. The results have been terrible with a bloodbath in Europe and eventually two world wars that had historically unprecedented consequences. This is not an act of becoming a nation but one of turning nation into a religion: the religion of nationalism. From a sociological perspective nationalism is a religion. I will elaborate on this in due course. Even religions have been aware of the potential dangers of an identity such as this, and in previous centuries opted for consistent and internationalist approaches (Ummah and Catholicism). The capitalist era has been the most sordid period in the history of civilization.

The most beneficial model for a nation is democratic nation. It is very important to understand this: In order to resolve the problems relating to nation, democratic society is the most constructive type of society. Nations can be formed and developed best within the system of democratic society. If they are to mutually support one another instead of using nationhood as a reason for warring and fighting, then the historical stage of the nation of nations, the fiber-nation, may be possible. Only within a democratic system will nationhood not give rise to fighting. Only then is it possible for nationhood to contribute to peace and fraternity in solidarity and cultural plurality. I will discuss this topic in detail throughout the book, as it is of the utmost importance.

To resolve and move beyond the problems related to the existence of multiple nations, the solution isn’t to deny the various nations: it is not to “over-nationalize” the factors constituting a nation, to reduce a nation to its constituent factors, or to allow these factors to become the vehicle for ultra-nationalist formations of government by politicizing them. The solution lies in developing the awareness of democratic nationhood and in developing ways to realize democratic nationhood.