1.1 Rationalism – Internationalist Commune

In the historical rise of capitalism, a leading role is given to rationalism, a branch of Western t hinking that emerged concurrently with capitalism. Rational thinking is presented as a d istinguishing characteristic of Western society, implying that no other society in history has b een able to effectively use its reasoning powers. it is said that the West created science t hrough use of reason; once it was clear that science was power, the system inevitably b ecame hegemonic. In order to define the type of reason that enables the system to sustain i tself, we first need to define reason itself and, thus, the human being is a biological species w ith its distinguishing features. We can look at the human from two perspectives: as a b iological species and as a social development. I will attempt to arrive at a clear definition by i nvestigating both the biological and the social sides of the human being.

Mental aspects of the human as biological species

I will begin my analysis of the mental aspects of human beings as a biological species by attempting to determine the role of reason in the system of living beings in general, as well as in the micro- and macro-dimensions of the universe.

On the level of the subatomic particle, postulating a form of intelligence is inevitable if we want to explain diversity, distinction, and development. All development in the universe happens in an incredibly small area, the particle; the extremely high speed of particle and wave movement causes them to transform into one another, leading to the development of great diversity. Not only development-in terms of diversity-in the subatomic world but also in the physical and biological worlds occurs in this way. let’s be careful, we are really wandering at the boundaries of metaphysics here. And while the question of why the universe exists may sound like a metaphysical one, it is not an inappropriate one. Let us not forget that the one posing the question is a human being and thus a social entity as well its a material body. The distinction between mind and body is a heinous philosophical and religious diversion that has led to the denial of life. ihe universe itself does not make such a distinction. Phenomenology is the study of subjective experience and does not believe in an existence beyond that. We are what we sense, feel, and think. Metaphysics, on the other hand, is the reflection of entities on feelings and thoughts.

Moving to the level of the macrocosm, we should view the universe itself as thefundamental, categorical existences such as animate-inanimate, finite-infinite, similar-different, matter-energy, time-space, and action-reaction; in other words, the universe is anintegral whole. Subatomic-macrocosmic is the fundamental, dialectical dual antagonism ofthe same integral whole. Time and space materialize as the unity of depth and width; that is,they become tangible or apprehensible.

If we look at how even a primitive life-form is organized, we can catch a glimpse of a marvelous element of intelligence. The earliest manifestation of this intelligence is its striving to become eternal by dividing itself at instantaneous intervals. And these primitive beings have not died out. Their resistance to annihilation has led to the development of the intelligence found in the human species. How did the potential for being alive in a single cell develop and diversify itself into the human being with its astounding intelligence? It just may be that for the animate cell it was sufficient to multiply itself, and in order to do that it started to feed and protect itself. It just may be that the subatomic particles resolve their problems of reproduction, nutrition, and protection so as not to vanish only by way of such micro-universes. In other words, there could have been reasoning behind these developments: it might have been a manifestation of universal intelligence. Let us not exclude ourselves from this universe of the microcosms-we are very much part of it. It just may be that our quest for reproduction, nutrition, and security is an expression of the combined reflection of this micro-universe. Could it be that the macro-universe has the same form of existence? It is determined to grow to the boundaries of eternity, manifesting its intelligence by pushing the limits of space and time. It is a possibility that the macro- universe too reverberates in the human intelligence.

I know that my conjecturing is becoming extreme, but you will concede that the intelligence of the human being could not just have fallen from the sky. Can we really think of intelligence in the absence of existence and evolution? How realistic is it to think that intelligence is unique to humans? Even death seems to be necessary so that life, and therefore existence, can be understood. We can assume that without death life would not have been noticed. In fact, eternal living –in the absence of change– is essentially not living. This is because an environment where there is no discernment is an environment where nothing happens. If that is the case, then, for life to materialize, death seems inevitable and we should not fear it so. A more appropriate way of participating in universal life would he to understand the life that is made possible by it. Just as we can’t escape death, we can’t escape life either. In fact, it seems that the sole purpose of life is to find the mystery of the universe in the resolution of the dual antagonism of life and death.

Consider a scenario where we arrived at the most competent meaning of life by resolving this dual antagonism. What would we have achieved? This question seems to be simultaneously immaterial and essential. Complete knowledge of the mystery of the universe may be called the final Victory of life. It would bring us to the Sacred Books’ heaven, to Buddhism’s Nirvana, and Sufism’s state of entrancement –that is, it can be interpreted in he the sanctification and never-ending celebration of life.

Some Western intellectuals proclaim that the emergence of life was completely incidental and restricted to our planet and that when the solar system is exhausted all shall vanish in a meaningless cosmogony. This, on the other hand, is a state similar to the concept of hell. Of course, there are arguments underlying this concept, but the rationale behind this understanding of life is most barren and not very strong. We know neither the universe fully nor the competent meaning of life. It is almost an it’ our world is so alive and fair that it does not give way to a life that does not have a sufficient environment to be realized. But at the same time it offers the habitation required for each living being’s potential.

Although we should not look at the history of humans coming into being in a human-centric way, viewing it as an ordinary event is disrespectful to the marvelous evolution of the universe. The worst metaphysical approach is positivism with its attempt to explain the phenomenon of the human being by separating and detaching it from the universe. When we unmask the relationship between positivism –the crudest form of materialism– and capitalism, we will not only understand the meaning of life but approach it with much more respect.

In conclusion, it seems that we have the chance to discern the universe in the most competent way through the observation of human beings as a biological species. But it is one thing to be aware of this potential and another to realize it. Eastern thought seems to have grasped this reality, expressing it in the saying “all that can be, is found in the human being.”

I must reiterate that from a human-centric perspective, we will see all of the other parts of nature-animate or inanimate-as at the disposal of the human being. It is the philosophical pillar on which hierarchical, authoritarian, and totalitarian perceptions of power are built. It leads to an abstract intelligence, detached from life, and at the same time it is the result of such intelligence. Ecologic philosophies that view the human being as disastrous for nature amount to the same thing. Such thinking stems from an unproductive philosophy that has only fragile bonds with life. Anyone unappreciative of the true nature of the evolution that led to the existence of the human being either has a tenuous link to life, or is linked to systems of extreme exploitation. But, this evolution lays before us serious moral questions as well. Before we proceed, let us define the relationship between intelligence and society.

Mental aspects of the human being as social entity

Socialization activates latent intelligence

As the socialization of its intelligence potential increases, the human species’ intelligence increases. Moreover, its anatomical structure necessitates socialization; the human is compelled to a degree of socialization not found in any other species. Unlike the young of other animals, the human childhood continues beyond the age of fifteen: in the absence of society, the human child would not survive. The human child is very weak at birth. All other animal offspring can survive on their own in a much shorter time. All living beings, both as species and as part of the totality of living beings, require a coexistence specific to their sort. The society specific to the human species has an existential quality which is more than just coexistence. The result is that human sociality is very complex and it needs to be understood in depth. Thus, if the human species lost its sociality, it shall either go back to an apelike existence or it shall perish. Conceptualizing society as second nature will allow a more in-depth approach.

Socialization itself is the intelligence that is no longer latent as it efficiently enters a process of activation. Existence in a community not only necessitates thought; social development is indeed a sine qua non for the development of thought. The development of nutrition, reproduction, and security increases as well with Increased socialization. On the other hand, nutrition, reproduction, and security, factors common to all living beings, are also indicators of intelligence and of a most stringent instinctive way of learning. If we go one step further, we can extrapolate that the development of the universe as a whole can be associated with intelligence and learning. In a way, society, as second nature, is a higher level, a reflection of the first nature.

There is the danger of aberration in the structure of thought and action that gives priority to first nature without understanding second nature, the society. If indeed the human being is the product of this second nature then, in order to understand the human being, we must give priority to understanding the nature that has formed him. Hence, I am not convinced that it science exclusively focusing on first nature can be objective nor that it can at all be independent of second nature. I feel that the aberration is limited here. I believe that physics, chemistry, and even biology cannot be studied independently of second nature and human sciences.

I am aware that I am touching the borders of religious law. However, the fundamental question that needs to be clarified is whether the distinction between subject and object is in any way meaningful, especially seeing that all laws relating to first nature are expressed in the human being via second nature. How far can we separate knowing and being known? An even more critical question is whether it is not a fundamental deviation to turn knowing and being known into a subject-object dual antagonism. In my opinion, the postulation of first and second nature as being subject and object has formed the basis for all of the mistakes made by human beings and the painful social processes that we have encountered. This system of logic has imprisoned and exploited the entire society since the onset of the capitalist system. What is worse is that the system unscrupulously applies this logic of coercion and exploitation to the elements constituting first nature. Sociality, which developed as a solution to the human species’ tragic situation, however, has become problematic (factors that form these problems include economy) at certain stages of its development, both within the texture of society itself and within the natural environment. But let us now analyze the development of intelligence.

Development of emotional intelligence

Once emotional intelligence was fully developed, the probability of establishing links between senses increased. This developed intelligent actions by establishing associations between all the senses, especially between that of sound, sight, and taste. Sign language was replaced with symbolic language after the necessary physiological development had taken place. The shift from communication through signs to communication through words –thus abstract thought that represent concepts– constitutes one of the most important revolutions in human history. Now to refer to objects and events that fulfilled their needs all that was needed was to name them. This was a monumental phase. Then, with the development of verbs and conjunctions, it became possible to express the various relationships between the objects and their functions. The transition to the use of sentences was made and the language revolution completed.

This was a new form of intelligence. Even in the absence of objects and events, thinking about them was now possible due to the mastery of words: conceptual or theoretical intelligence had arrived. This incredible development produced an intelligence capable of producing uncountable benefits, and yet it can lead to the gravest harm. Its fundamental characteristic is the ability to operate detached from the emotions. This type of intelligence has made conceptual-analytical-thought possible, bringing the major advantage that humans can now imagine endlessly and think about the entire universe without becoming exhausted. It has enabled humans to create the incredible world of symbols, to imitate nature and develop astounding inventions. It has given them the ability to plan, to ambush, and to attempt conspiracies, thereby enabling them to obtain anything they desire. And thus the fundamental source of problems within and outside of society.

The interconnectedness of the analytical and emotional dimensions of intelligence is an important asset and is seemingly unique to humans. But this ability can be used either to the benefit or detriment of society. Since its onset, society’s response to this double-edged gift has been to base itself on morals as its fundamental organizational principle. Without social morality, humans cannot cope with analytical intelligence. Every community has seen the raising of its members as morally upright to be its fundamental task. The concepts of good and evil, the fundamental dual antagonism of morals, are thus related to the function of analytical intelligence: that which attempts to benefit society is seen as morally good and rewarded, and that which attempts to harm society is condemned as morally bad. In fact, all moral traditions condemn evil as something that should not occur and thus it is suppressed and, if it does occur, it is punished. Until, of course, the morals of goodness guide society.

Development of analytical intelligence and a system of ethics

Enslavement of society through analytical Intelligence

Development of patriarchal society and a patriarchal mythology

The remedy of morals has never obtained an absolute preventative power. The societal fissures will always be home to the crafty, schemers, and entrappers. In fact, there is an ancient culture underlying this, namely hunting. The basis of hunting is the setting of traps and the scheming against other living beings-the roots of this culture go back further than the animal kingdom to that of the plant. (Thus, these roots are also the biological roots of analytical intelligence.) But in human society the synthesis of hunting culture and analytical intelligence enabled individuals early on to develop the ability or power to form hierarchies within social structures and upon nature. This was the start of the catastrophe. The distinction between heaven and hell developed parallel with the ability of analytical intelligence to establish a social hierarchy: in hierarchical societies, a handful of “strong men” holding the strings of society evoked the imagination of a heaven-like life. Alas, for the society at the bottom, the path to hell-continuously worsening, although its emergence was never understood-had been paved.

The strong man’s first victim was the woman. Due to the female’s stronger bonds with life, her natural emotional intelligence is better developed than that of the male. She is not only the mother of the children, that of labor blended with much pain, she is also the one primarily responsible for social life. She is not only aware of life; she also has more knowledge to sustain it. She is a gatherer, equipped for this by both her emotional intelligence and what she has learned from nature. Anthropological data indicates that for the greatest part of history social accumulation centered on the mother-woman, making her the center of the society’s prosperity and values. It can be surmised that she was also the mother-the creator-of surplus-value. The strong man, whose primary task was hunting, realized the advantages that controlling the accumulated goods would give to him. Lowering the woman’s position to that of sexual object while raising his own to that of father-or rather, master-of the children, with the right to control all the material and immaterial cultural accumulation, whetted the strong man’s appetite. The organization of his power, acquired through hunting, enabled to establish the initial social hierarchy. This was the first instance of analytical intelligence used for malicious purposes within the social Witt“: it became systemic.

With the available archaeological records, we can deduce that the hierarchal society based on crop yield was the dominant culture throughout the Mesolithic and Neolithic in Upper Mesopotamia. Traces of this can be seen in the written history. In Neolithic society, religion and language based on the woman was well developed. The transition from the sacred matriarchal cult to the patriarchal cult ensured that analytical intelligence was wrapped in the armor of sacredness. This may be a strong postulate to put forth as to why the patriarchal system has become so deeply rooted. We are able to determine that the physical location where the patriarchal mentality originated is the Tigris-Euphrates basin. It spread all over Mesopotamia from its starting point in Lower Mesopotamia around 5.500 to 4,000 BC and became the dominant social culture. The societal problem emerged for the first time in serious dimensions within lite patriarchal societies that became cult-like centered around the strong titan. The onset of woman’s enslavement first prepared the ground for the enslavement of her children, and then the enslavement of men.

The domination and control over female and male slaves intensified as their experience inaccumulation of value, and especially that of surplus-product, increased. Power andauthority increasingly gained importance, and the collaboration between the strong man,the wise old man, and the shaman grew into a center of power not easily confronted. At thiscenter the speculative intelligence developed an extraordinary mythological narration inorder to achieve its intellectual domination over society. In this mythological world,historically known to us from the Sumerian society, the strong man is exalted to the point ofdivinity, the creator of heaven and earth. Whilst the woman’s divinity and sacredness is firstdemeaned and then obliterated, the dominant male is presented as the absolute power.Thus, through extensive use of mythology, everything is turned into the relationshipbetween ruler and ruled, creator and created. This mythological world, as a result of makingthe entire society assimilate, becomes the fundamental narrative and gradually becomes religionized. We now face a speculative and institutionalized form of intelligence thatrecognizes no boundary.

The emergent hierarchical order of relations ll the initial exploitative. oppressive, and institutionalized authoritarian system materialized and legitimized by the mythological intelligence and its mental forms with its origins in patriarchy. This process has occurred in different phases of many societies, albeit in different forms and with differing intensity. The intelligence rendering possible the oppression and exploitation cannot possibly be emotional. One cannot think of a mindset that can cause the societal problem unless it reaches the level of analytical intelligence and becomes integrated with the games of entrapping that exist within the hunting culture. This mindset needs to generate fake myths in order to disguise its true function.

However, attributing the entire intellectual world to hierarchical powers would be a mistake. Positive traditions of thought and institutions have also been created through the synergy of analytical and emotional intelligence. This is why we can observe during such times not only physical wars but also ruthless wars of different mindsets and ideas. We can thus retrace and find the source of what we call ideological war as expressed in religion, philosophy, ethics, and arts. Conflicts that we come across abundantly in mythology and religions are in essence nothing but the expression of economic and political struggle. Until the era of the capitalist ethos all economic and political wars for power were disguised behind mythology and religion.

Development of the marketplace, classed- and urban society

The state is the representative of permanently institutionalized hierarchical structures. The transformation of power structures from individual representation to institutional representation is related to the development of class society in parallel with urbanization.

More often than not, we see the phenomena of city and class as related to the capitalist system. But it is of crucial importance that we understand their origins-if the onset and origin of a social phenomenon cannot be clarified, the phenomenon itself will not be adequately understood. The establishment of the city has not yet been explained sufficiently and it is at least as important as the onset of capitalism. It thus requires re- evaluation. In my opinion, it is not wrong to see the city as having proto-capitalistic characteristics. Just as the market is a sphere of relations where capitalism has been nourished and came into existence. the city can be described as the place where the market has developed and became permanent. This is important for the subject under discussion as this was also the most advanced location of speculative intelligence. The city, due to its feature of living it market, not only demands an abstract and analytical intelligence but ilm conceives it-an establishment that is an acute tool for socialization. lt is the environment of relations where not only historical developments like the rationalization of the mythological and religious world, and the weeding up of scientific developments and their distortion occur, but it also mults in philosophy. Work done is mainly based on analytical intelligence.

The abstract world of concepts and their manifestation in art has enhanced the magnificence of the city. Amidst this speculative environment of relations isolated from emotional intelligence and knowing no boundaries, a tremendous world of images is injected into the mentality of the society through all different sorts of entrapping and scheming. It is true that reason develops in the city environment, but what attributes does such reason have? Does it bring about enlightenment or ignorance? As yet, these questions have not been answered satisfactorily. The city society is the primary web of relations that generate war and exploitation, power, and class. At the same time, the city results in the willing embrace of class by the majority of the society, and is a set-up that totally destroys the environment. Although the mythological and religious expressions of rural communities are linked to analytical intelligence too, they primarily play a positive role. Not only their gods but also their forms of belief reflect their sincere worlds full of emotions. The deities are good friends, compassionate, forgiving, and merciful: they lessen sorrow and ease hardship. However, as the mythological and religious forms become urbanized, the gods, too, become abstract, scrutinizing, punitive, and always have to be pleaded with. They inflict pain and relish their rule. This is a reflection of what happens when a commodity enters into circulation: the gods of the market and the city are entwined.

The concept of class developed in the aftermath of the disintegration of –not only, but especially– blood based hierarchic groups such as famiy, clan, and tribe. As the upper groups started to become the state, those at the bottom turned into groups that became the ruled. This was a merciless and alienating process, linked to the decline in emotional intelligence. The more the oppressed classes became dependent on the ruling class, the more they legitimized the ruling class’ intellectual domination, thus endorsing their own state of decay. This is the epitome of damnation for the oppressed: it is the lowest pit of being impoverished from both types of intelligence and the validation of despotic exploitation of oneself. Such a deprivation of intelligence is in the worst situation of becoming déclassé within society. The more the abstract analytical intelligence at the top victimizes and enslaves, the more slaves and beggars destitute of reason-the more dim-wits- are being created.

Protestantism paves the way for capitalism

If history is divided into several periods by mindset, then the mythological and religious phase can be said to weigh more in the early ages (from 5,000 BC to 500 CE), the synthesis of religion and philosophy during the theological medieval age (from 500 to 1500), and the separation of philosophy and science during the modern age (from 1500 to the present). As mythology becomes dogmatized, religion is formed. Mythology cannot exactly be called religion. Religion requires forms of unchanging belief and worship. It is totally fictive. Believing these fictions is the basis of religion. The only positive aspect of religion is that as the transition to abstract thought was made, it gave rise to a profound cleavage. It has thus reluctantly prepared the ground for scientific and philosophical thought, compelling their onset. Philosophical and scientific thought develop in a dialectical link with religious thought. Philosophy and science bear profound traces of religion. Although the source of philosophy is mostly this fictive intelligence, it continuously links the concrete with observation. It does not entirely detach itself from emotional intelligence. It has the highest abstraction power of all forms of thought. Its contribution to science is bigger than that of religion. Science is actually not that different from philosophy; it can be seen as philosophy with a more advanced experimental base. Both try to render meaning to both natures through observation and experiment. This is the right way to go about it. But their most significant deficiency is the lack of an answer to the question religions asks: Why? It is not a sufficient response to life to only answer the how of nature. To assume the huge universe is motiveless, purposeless, and without a reason as to why it exists cannot really be a desirable approach. A science which has no answer to the question of why there is life cannot escape being the tool of the enslaving rulers.

The separation of science from philosophy and religion (in relation to the questions of reason and purpose) is closely linked to capitalistic mentality. I strongly put this forth as a thesis. I can make my case accordingly: Religion, philosophy. and even mythology constitute the memory, identity, and mental protection of society. Despite their huge distortions and that they are shown to be in opposition to sociology, they constitute a sociological reality. Without them, society’s ties with history and memory are cut off; ihe science resulting from such a society can’t help but be of service to the present ruler, which is what capitalism does. Why have mythology, religion. and philosophy been reduced to worthlessness in the capitalist system? The answer is quite clear: religion, philosophy, and mythology have continuously excluded and refused to legitimize capitalistic elements such as the usurers and the speculators lurking in the fissures of society. As long as religion, philosophy, and mythology hold their position within it society’s thought system and emotional intelligence continues to have influence on the society, capitalism will not be able to establish itself as the leading system. This is because amidst the ambiance of such a mentality –and morality– no ruler will be able to legitimize capitalism nor defend it as n socio-economical system to base itself upon.

But, as the sociologist Max Weber argued, the mental world of the Protestant denomination of Christianity prepared the mental grounds for capitalism and morally gave free passage to it. It is possible to criticize this evaluation, although it bears some truth. Firstly, Protestantism is itself a very weak religion and is quite close to the capitalist form of science. More importantly though, Protestantism marked the start of the era of national religions. It was like a precursor for nationalism and nationalism itself is nothing but an ideology of capitalism. It may help us to understand the major religious wars in Europe when looked at from this perspective.

Capitalists succeeded in being victorious in places either where religion had a light impact or where-for instance in the Netherlands, England, and the USA-Protestantism was newly adopted. These countries were also the places where different sects found shelter. I am not defending the orthodoxies of religion here. What I am saying is that, because Protestantism had the least strict morals in Christianity, it became the gateway for capitalism. (This is where I deviate from Weber: he sees this tolerance u a positive characteristic, while I see it as a negative characteristic.) It may sound paradoxical, but the capitalist mindset has gained legitimacy only at the weakest or last phase of the very long historical walk of the religious mindset.